The Influence of Persian Literature on Western Culture

Persian literature, with its deep philosophical reflections, poetic grandeur, and rich storytelling traditions, has played a significant role in shaping world literature. While Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions were dominant in shaping early Western literature, Persian literary works introduced unique themes and perspectives that left a lasting mark on Western thought, poetry, and storytelling. From the medieval period to modern times, masterpieces by poets such as Rumi, Ferdowsi, Saadi, and Hafez have deeply resonated with Western intellectuals, writers, and artists. Here we explore how Persian literature has influenced Western culture, particularly poetry, philosophy, storytelling, and contemporary arts.”

The Introduction of Persian Literature to the West

“The influence of Persian literature on Western culture can be traced back to the medieval period when European scholars and travelers encountered Persian manuscripts. Trade, diplomatic exchanges, and the Islamic Golden Age (8th-14th centuries) played crucial roles in this literary transmission, as many Persian works were translated into Arabic before reaching Europe through centers of learning such as Baghdad’s House of Wisdom and Al-Andalus.

One of the most famous introductions of Persian storytelling to the West came through the translation of One Thousand and One Nights, often known as The Arabian Nights. Although this collection includes stories from various cultures, scholars believe that many of its tales trace their origins to the Persian Hezar Afsan (A Thousand Stories). These narratives fascinated European audiences with their exotic settings, imaginative plots, and intricate moral lessons, influencing Western storytelling traditions and even the structure of fairy tales.”

The Impact on Western Poetry

“One of the most profound influences of Persian literature on the West is seen in poetry, where both themes and stylistic elements from Persian verse shaped the works of Western poets. Persian masters such as Rumi, Omar Khayyam, Saadi, and Hafez have captivated Western poets and thinkers for centuries, particularly through their mystical, philosophical, and deeply humanistic poetry. Their works gained widespread recognition in Europe, especially during the 19th and 20th centuries, when translations by scholars like Edward FitzGerald and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe introduced their verses to a broader audience. The themes of love, fate, and spiritual enlightenment in Persian poetry resonated deeply with Romantic and Transcendentalist movements, leaving a lasting mark on Western literary traditions.”

Rumi and the Romantic Movement

“Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi, the 13th-century Sufi poet, is one of the most widely read poets in the Western world today, largely due to modern translations. His poetry, which explores love, spiritual enlightenment, and the search for the divine, has profoundly impacted Western poets and philosophers. Themes of unity, self-transcendence, and divine love in his work have reverberated deeply with Western mysticism and transcendentalist thought.

Reynold A. Nicholson’s scholarly translations in the early 20th century and Coleman Barks’ modern adaptations have significantly enhanced the accessibility of Rumi’s poetry to English-speaking audiences. While Rumi’s direct influence on the 19th-century Romantic Movement is less documented, his mystical themes align closely with Romantic ideals of emotion, individualism, and spiritual depth. The German Romantic poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, for example, was deeply influenced by Persian poetry, which included Rumi’s work and particularly the works of Hafez. Goethe’s engagement with Hafez’s poetry led him to compose “West–östlicher Divan,” a collection that reflects the profound impact of Persian mysticism on his artistic and philosophical pursuits.

Omar Khayyam’s Influence on Western Thinkers

“Omar Khayyam, the Persian mathematician, astronomer, and poet, became famous in the West primarily due to Edward FitzGerald’s 19th-century translation of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam. FitzGerald’s adaptation, though not a literal translation, brought Khayyam’s philosophical and existential quatrains to Western readers, focusing on themes such as the fleeting nature of life, time, and fate. The hedonistic yet deeply reflective tone of Khayyam’s poetry struck a chord with Victorian readers, resonating with their questions about life’s impermanence. FitzGerald’s translation, first published in 1859, played a pivotal role in introducing Khayyam’s work to the English-speaking world. Although initially met with limited success, the translation gained popularity over time, influencing Western literature and inspiring numerous adaptations and interpretations.

The Rubaiyat’s impact extended beyond literature, inspiring various art forms and cultural expressions. Its themes of existential reflection and the transient nature of life continue to resound with audiences worldwide. The themes of existentialism, the transience of life, and the pursuit of fleeting pleasures in Khayyam’s work found echoes in Western literary works by writers like Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson. The Rubaiyat also had a profound influence on Western art, particularly on the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, who sought to capture its sensual and mystical themes through visual art. The poetry’s evocative imagery continued to inspire artists like Vincent van Gogh in the following century.”

Persian Storytelling and Narrative Influence

Beyond poetry, Persian storytelling traditions have had a considerable impact on Western literature. The Shahnameh, an epic poem by Ferdowsi, is one of the most significant literary works in Persian history and is regarded as the national epic of Iran. Composed of 60,000 rhyming couplets, it recounts the mythological and historical past of Persia, beginning with its legendary kings and continuing through the Sassanid era. In this sense, it is akin to Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey for Greece, covering mythical and historical narratives. Ferdowsi’s influence is evident in later European epic literature. The themes of heroism, destiny, and the eternal battle between good and evil in Shahnameh find parallels in Western literary works such as John Milton’s Paradise Lost and J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. Furthermore, the Persian tradition of grand, sweeping narratives filled with allegorical depth contributed to the development of medieval chivalric romances in Europe, including works like the Chanson de Roland and Arthurian legends.”

The Philosophical and Ethical Influence

Persian literature is deeply intertwined with philosophical thought, particularly through the works of Saadi and Hafez. Sadi’s Bustan and Gulistan are collections of moralistic tales and aphorisms that have been widely studied in the West. Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire and Goethe were influenced by the ethical and philosophical wisdom found in these works. Persian literature is deeply intertwined with philosophical thought, particularly through the works of Saadi and Hafez. Saadi’s Gulistan (The Rose Garden) and Bustan (The Orchard) are renowned for their moralistic tales and aphorisms, offering reflections on human nature, ethics, and social harmony. These collections, blending both prose and poetry, have been widely studied in the West. Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire were profoundly influenced by the ethical and philosophical wisdom found in Saadi’s works.

Hafez and Goethe: A Literary Bond

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, one of Germany’s greatest literary figures, was profoundly inspired by the Persian poet Hafez. Goethe first encountered Hafez’s poetry through translations and interpretations, which sparked his fascination with Persian poetic traditions. Goethe’s West-östlicher Divan (West-Eastern Divan), published in 1819, is a direct homage to Hafez, reflecting a deep admiration for Persian thought, mysticism, and poetic style. In this collection, Goethe explores themes of divine love, existential contemplation, and a critique of hypocrisy in religious and political institutions, topics that resonate with Hafez’s philosophical inquiries. Goethe’s work blends Eastern and Western literary traditions, creating a unique bridge between the two cultural spheres.

Persian Influence on Modern Western Literature and Arts

Even in contemporary times, Persian literature continues to shape Western artistic expressions across a range of mediums, including poetry, music, and cinema. The timeless themes explored by Persian poets and writers, such as love, loss, mysticism, and the search for meaning, are revisited and reinterpreted by Western artists. For instance, the mystical elements of Persian poetry, particularly the works of Rumi and Hafez, have influenced contemporary poets like Coleman Barks.

Persian Mysticism in Contemporary Literature

Modern authors such as Jorge Luis Borges and Rainer Maria Rilke have drawn inspiration from Persian poetry, particularly its mystical and philosophical elements. Borges, in particular, admired the depth and complexity of Persian literature, a fascination reflected in his intricate, dreamlike narratives that often blur the lines between reality and fiction. His works, like “The Secret Miracle,” demonstrate themes of infinite knowledge and mysticism reminiscent of Persian Sufi philosophy, notably that of Farid ud-Din Attar. Similarly, Rilke’s poems, with their deep introspection and exploration of existential themes, echo the spiritual journeys found in Persian mystical poetry.

Persian Themes in Cinema

Persian literary themes have also found their way into Western cinema, often through the exploration of profound emotional and philosophical concepts. For example, The Kite Runner (2007), based on Khaled Hosseini’s novel, incorporates Persian storytelling traditions, particularly the themes of loyalty, redemption, and the tension between personal and societal duties. The film’s depiction of Afghan culture and history mirrors the narrative depth found in Persian epics like Shahnameh and the intricate moral and emotional storytelling of Persian literature. Additionally, directors like Terrence Malick have drawn on Sufi themes of interconnectedness and divine love in their works, with films like The Tree of Life (2011) reflecting the mystical perspectives in Persian poetry. Malick’s exploration of cosmic unity and the search for meaning closely parallels the themes of spiritual enlightenment found in Sufi mysticism and Persian philosophical poetry.

Conclusion

The influence of Persian literature on Western culture is profound and far-reaching, leaving a lasting imprint on world literature and philosophy. From inspiring some of the most renowned Western poets and thinkers to shaping narrative structures and philosophical discourses, Persian literary heritage has played a pivotal role in the development of global culture. The universality of Persian literature, its deep explorations of love, fate, and the human condition, ensures that it continues to resonate with audiences across time and space. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the appreciation and integration of Persian literary masterpieces into Western artistic and intellectual traditions will only deepen. This continued cultural exchange affirms the timeless value of Persian literature in shaping and enriching the global cultural landscape, ensuring that its influence remains relevant for generations to come.

 

The Evolution of Persian Calligraphy

 

Persian calligraphy is one of the most revered and ancient forms of artistic expression, deeply intertwined with Iran’s cultural, historical, and spiritual identity. Known for its flowing and intricate scripts, Persian calligraphy has evolved over centuries, reflecting the changing dynasties, religious shifts, and artistic developments. From its earliest beginnings to its modern-day manifestations, Persian calligraphy remains an emblem of Iranian heritage and an essential element of the Islamic world’s artistic legacy.

The Beginnings: The Roots of Persian Calligraphy

The roots of Persian calligraphy are as ancient as the history of Iran itself, tracing back to the pre-Islamic era and the reign of the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE). Scripts like Old Persian cuneiform were developed during this time, primarily for monumental inscriptions. The most renowned example is the Behistun Inscription, created by the order of Darius the Great. These early scripts, often referred to as “Script of Nails” or “Khat-e-Mikhi” in Farsi due to their nail-like shapes, consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal letters and are believed to have been invented around 500–600 BCE.

Throughout Iran’s history, various languages and scripts have been used, including Ilami, Avestan, Pahlavi, and Middle Persian (“Farsi-e-Mianeh”). Pahlavi, derived from Aramaic, was a cursive script used to write the Middle Persian language during the Sassanian era. It remained prominent until the Islamic conquest of Persia in 651 AD, which marked a turning point in Persian writing systems.

With the advent of Islam, the Arabic script replaced older scripts, but Persian scribes adapted it to suit their language. They introduced four additional letters to the original 28 of the Arabic alphabet, creating the 32-letter Persian alphabet still in use today. This adaptation provided the foundation for the many distinctive styles of Persian calligraphy that would later emerge. Over time, Persian calligraphy evolved into a unique art form, distinct from Arabic calligraphy, while maintaining a deep connection to its historical roots.

 

The Islamic Golden Age: The Birth of New Scripts

The birth of Islamic calligraphy and its influence on Persian writing occurred during the early Islamic period, notably with the spread of the Arabic script. As Persia became part of the Islamic Empire, the Arabic alphabet became the standard for writing Persian. The fusion of the Persian language and Arabic script led to the development of distinct calligraphic styles, which evolved into a form of art unique to Persian culture.

The first prominent style of Persian calligraphy to emerge after the adoption of the Arabic script in the 7th century was the Kufic script. Known for its angular, geometric shapes and bold lines, Kufic was initially used for religious texts, particularly the Quran, as well as monumental inscriptions on mosques, coins, and important buildings. Although initially an Arabic script, Persian calligraphers embraced Kufic and adapted it for Persian writing.

Over time, Iranian calligraphers added their artistic touches to the script, softening its rigid lines and enhancing its symmetry. These modifications reflected the Persian sense of art and balance, transforming Kufic into a style that was not only functional but also aesthetically aligned with Persian cultural values. This marked the beginning of a distinct Persian contribution to the broader tradition of Islamic calligraphy.

As Islamic culture and art advanced, new calligraphy styles emerged, incorporating more fluid and elegant forms. The Naskh script, developed during the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), was characterized by its legibility and flowing curves. Unlike the angular Kufic script, Naskh was more cursive and fluid, making it suitable for everyday writing, book transcription, and the production of literary and scholarly works. Its clarity and adaptability made it the dominant script for religious texts, manuscripts, and general writing, significantly influencing Persian calligraphy.

By the 11th century, Naskh had become a staple of Persian calligraphy, alongside another popular script, Thuluth. While Naskh was primarily used in books and manuscripts due to its practicality, Thuluth, with its larger and more decorative forms, became favored for architectural inscriptions and ornamental designs in mosques and public spaces. Together, these styles played a pivotal role in shaping the artistic and functional evolution of Persian calligraphy.

The Rise of Diwani and Thuluth: Refining the Art Form

By the 10th century, Persian calligraphy had become an established art form, moving beyond the merely functional and entering the realm of decoration and personal expression. During the Seljuk and Timurid periods (11th–15th centuries), Persian calligraphy underwent a significant transformation by the development of more elaborate scripts.

One of the most notable advancements in Persian calligraphy during this time was the Diwani script, which developed in the Ottoman Empire during the reign of the Seljuk and later the Timurids. The Diwani script is known for its elaborate, rounded forms characterized by a strong slant and decorative loops. This style was typically used for official documents, making it a symbol of authority and prestige.

At the same time, the Thuluth script, known for its bold, sweeping strokes and elongated letterforms, became an essential style for monumental inscriptions and architectural embellishments. This script, which had earlier been used for religious texts in the Arab world, was also adopted and refined by Persian calligraphers. The Thuluth script’s elegance and grandeur made it a preferred choice for royal inscriptions and essential documents.

 

The Safavid Dynasty: The Golden Age of Persian Calligraphy

The Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) marked a period of unprecedented growth and sophistication in Persian calligraphy. Under the Safavid rulers, the arts flourished, and Persian calligraphy became one of Iran’s most esteemed forms of expression. This period saw the emergence of new calligraphic styles and the refinement of older ones as calligraphers became highly skilled in blending artistic elegance with functional writing.

One of the most significant calligraphy styles to emerge during this time was “Nas’taliq,” considered the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts. Known as the “Bride of the Calligraphy Scripts,” Nas’taliq is renowned for its strong structure, which has changed little since its creation. It is said that Mir Ali Tabrizi, the creator of this style, found the optimal composition of letters and graphical rules, resulting in a design that has only been fine-tuned over the past seven centuries. Nas’taliq is both the most beautiful and the most technically complicated Persian calligraphy style, with strict rules governing the shape of letters, the combination of letters, and the overall composition of a calligraphy piece.

The development of Nas’taliq followed centuries of calligraphic evolution. In the 10th century, the calligrapher Ebn-e-Moqlah Beyzavi Shirazi conducted research on six major calligraphy styles, categorizing them into “Muhaqqaq,” “Reyhan,” “Sols” or “Thuluth,” “Naskh,” “Reqaa,” and “Tawqi,” all governed by twelve major principles. Later, Hassan Farsi Kateb combined “Naskh” and “Reqaa” styles to create “Taliq.” Finally, in the 14th century, Mir Ali Tabrizi merged Naskh and Taliq, creating Nas’taliq, the most attractive and popular style in Persian calligraphy.

What sets Nas’taliq apart from its predecessors is its emphasis on natural curves. Unlike Arabic scripts, which often follow logical and geometric designs, Nas’taliq embraces the curves found in nature, creating a sense of intimacy and beauty. Although Mir Ali Tabrizi may not have intended to mimic natural forms directly, the similarity between the curves of Nas’taliq and natural shapes is remarkable.

In the evolution of Persian calligraphy, the 17th century introduced the “Cursive Nast’aliq” or “Shekasteh Nast’aliq” style. Based on Nast’aliq’s principles, this style offered greater flexibility and more pronounced curves. While some attribute its creation to Morteza Qoli Shamloo and others to Mohammad Shafee Heravi, it was Darvish Abdolmajid Taleqani who refined it to perfection in the 18th century. Among contemporary calligraphers, Yadollah Kaboli is regarded as a master of this tradition.

Mir Ali Tabrizi, a pivotal figure in Persian calligraphy, is also credited with developing the Shikasteh (“broken”) script. Characterized by fast, flowing strokes and a fragmented appearance, Shikasteh showcased the calligrapher’s skill and creativity. Despite its complexity and challenging readability, it became one of the most widely used styles, especially for Persian poetry, thanks to its beauty and fluidity.

 

The Role of Persian Calligraphy in Islamic Art and Culture

Throughout history, Persian calligraphy has been integral to literature, documentation, and religious and cultural life. It was regarded as a form of devotion, particularly during the Safavid period, when some of the most exquisite calligraphic works were created for religious texts, including Quranic verses and Islamic prayers. The art form was often used to decorate mosques, palaces, and royal courts, with calligraphers highly regarded as artists and scholars.

Persian calligraphy was also an essential part of Persian poetry. Famous poets such as Hafez, Saadi, and Rumi are often celebrated for their literary works and the way their poetry was visually represented in calligraphic manuscripts. Writing poetry in Persian calligraphy became a distinct art form, with the beauty of the script on paper reflecting the grace and elegance of the poetry itself. The calligrapher’s skill in forming the letters and composing the page was often seen as an integral part of the poetic experience.

 

The Decline and Revival: 19th and 20th Centuries

 

The 19th century marked a significant shift in the role of calligraphy in Iran due to the increasing influence of European art styles and the rise of printing technologies. The introduction of printing presses and lithography reduced the demand for hand-written manuscripts, leading to a decline in traditional Persian calligraphy. During this period, the focus shifted from calligraphy as a widespread practical art to a more specialized and decorative one.

However, the 20th century witnessed a revival of Persian calligraphy, spearheaded by a group of dedicated calligraphers committed to preserving and innovating upon traditional forms. Among the most influential was Hossein Mirkhani, along with his brother Mehdi Mirkhani, who played a pivotal role in revitalizing the Nastaliq script. Additionally, Hossein Behzad, a master miniaturist and calligrapher, also contributed to the revival by blending traditional calligraphy with innovative artistic elements. This era saw a renewed appreciation for scripts like Nastaliq and Shekasteh as modern calligraphers began merging classical techniques with contemporary aesthetics, giving rise to a flourishing period of Persian calligraphy.

 

Modern Persian Calligraphy, Innovation, and Experimentation

Today, Persian calligraphy continues to evolve, with artists drawing inspiration from both traditional and modern art forms. Contemporary calligraphers are preserving the ancient scripts and experimenting with new media and styles. The integration of calligraphy with modern art movements has resulted in creations that transcend traditional boundaries, blending calligraphy with abstract art, graphic design, and even digital media. While the forms of Persian calligraphy may have changed, its essence remains unchanged. It is an art form that continues to express the beauty of language, the culture of Iran, and the spirituality of the Islamic world. In the digital age, Persian calligraphy has found new life through online platforms, where artists can share their works and gain recognition on a global scale.

Conclusion: The Timeless Beauty of Persian Calligraphy

The evolution of Persian calligraphy is a testament to Iran’s rich cultural and artistic heritage. From its origins in the ancient world to its modern-day expressions, Persian calligraphy has adapted to the changing tides of history, preserving the artistic and linguistic identity of the Persian-speaking world. It remains a vibrant and essential part of Iranian culture, connecting the past to the present and continuing to inspire artists and scholars alike. Persian calligraphy is more than just a form of writing; it’s a living art that bridges time, space, and culture. It represents the power of the written word, the beauty of artistic craftsmanship, and the deep spiritual connection between the artist and the text. Whether adorning the walls of a mosque, gracing the pages of a book, or inspiring new generations of artists, Persian calligraphy remains a symbol of the enduring legacy of Iran’s cultural and artistic identity.

Iranian Traditional Clothing, A Reflection of Culture

Iran, a land of ancient civilizations and rich cultural heritage boasts a diverse range of traditional clothing that reflects its history, geography, and cultural identity. The variety in Iranian traditional attire emanates from the country’s multi-ethnic composition and the influence of centuries of historical changes. From the elaborate garments of the Qajar era to the energetic tribal outfits, each piece of clothing tells a story of identity, functionality, and artistic expression.

Historical Evolution of Iranian Clothing

Traditional Iranian clothing has evolved over millennia, influenced by the region’s history and interactions with other cultures. Ancient Persia, renowned for its grandeur during the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), had clothing that symbolized royalty and status. Reliefs from Persepolis depict flowing robes and elaborately patterned textiles worn by both men and women. These garments, often made of luxurious fabrics like silk and wool, showcased intricate embroidery and dyes derived from natural sources.

During the Sassanian Empire (224–651 CE), clothing became even more refined. Persian weavers were celebrated for their skills in producing exquisite fabrics, which were sought after along the Silk Road. The designs featured motifs of flora and fauna, symbolizing power and prosperity.

With the advent of Islam in the 7th century, modesty became an essential feature of clothing. This shift led to looser and more covered styles, although regional variations continued to thrive. Each historical period, from the Safavids (1501–1736) to the Qajars (1789–1925), brought distinct aesthetics and influences to Iranian attire, blending indigenous traditions with foreign elements.

Regional Diversity in Iranian Clothing

Iran’s vast geographical and ethnic diversity has given rise to a wide array of traditional garments, each tailored to the local climate, lifestyle, and cultural practices. Here are some notable examples:

1. Kurdish Clothing: Kurdish attire is vibrant and richly decorated, often featuring colorful patterns and embroidery. Women typically wear long dresses with fitted bodices, wide sleeves, and layered skirts, accessorized with belts and headscarves. Men’s clothing includes loose trousers called “Shalvar” and tunics, complemented by wide sashes and traditional headgear known as “Jamadani.”
2. Baluchi Clothing: In southeastern Iran, Baluchi people wear distinctive outfits suitable for the arid climate. Women’s dresses are adorned with elaborate hand-stitched embroidery, often featuring geometric and floral designs. Men wear long shirts over baggy trousers, with turbans completing the ensemble.
3. Turkmen Clothing: Turkmen attire from northeastern Iran showcases bold colors, particularly red, which is believed to bring good fortune. Women wear long dresses embellished with silver jewelry, while men wear fur hats and embroidered coats.
4. Lor and Bakhtiari Clothing: The nomadic Lor and Bakhtiari tribes of western Iran have practical yet decorative garments. Women wear layered skirts and embroidered vests, while men wear wide-legged trousers and felt hats.
5. Qashqai Clothing: The Qashqai nomads are known for their intricately designed shawls and scarves. Women wear colorful skirts and blouses paired with floral headscarves. Men’s clothing includes woolen coats and wide-brimmed hats.
6. Azerbaijani Clothing: Azerbaijani traditional attire often features vibrant silk fabrics and elaborate embroidery. Women wear long dresses with fitted waists, while men wear knee-length coats and lambskin hats.

Elements of Traditional Iranian Clothing

Several key elements define traditional Iranian clothing, combining functionality with artistic flair:

• Fabrics: Natural fibers like cotton, silk, and wool are widely used, ensuring comfort in diverse climates. The quality and design of the fabric often indicate the wearer’s social status.
• Embroidery and Patterns: Hand-stitched embroidery and intricate patterns, such as paisley (Buteh), are hallmarks of Iranian textiles. Each region has distinct motifs and styles.
• Headgear: Headscarves and turbans play a significant role in Iranian clothing, serving cultural, religious, and practical purposes. For women, scarves like the “Chador” provide modest coverage, while men’s turbans vary by region and tribe.
• Jewelry: Traditional Iranian outfits are often accessorized with jewelry, including necklaces, bracelets, and earrings made from gold, silver, and semi-precious stones. Tribal groups, in particular, use bold and ornate pieces to signify wealth and identity.

Cultural Significance of Iranian Traditional Clothing

Traditional clothing in Iran is more than just attire. It is a reflection of the wearer’s identity, beliefs, and way of life. Clothing often signals:

• Ethnic Identity: Each ethnic group’s attire is a source of pride and an expression of cultural heritage.
• Social Status: Historically, the richness of fabric and embellishments indicated one’s social and economic standing.
• Religious Values: Modesty is a cornerstone of Iranian clothing, aligning with Islamic principles.
• Festive Occasions: Weddings, Nowruz (Persian New Year), and other celebrations are marked by traditional clothing, often in vibrant colors and luxurious fabrics.

Modern Adaptations and Revival

In recent decades, interest in traditional Iranian clothing has been resurgent. Designers are incorporating elements of traditional attire into contemporary fashion, blending historical aesthetics with modern trends. These adaptations often highlight regional embroidery, patterns, and cuts, making them appealing to a global audience. Additionally, efforts are underway to preserve the craft of traditional textile production and embroidery. Workshops and cultural festivals showcase these arts, ensuring that younger generations appreciate and continue these traditions.

Challenges and Preservation Efforts

Despite its rich heritage, traditional Iranian clothing faces challenges in modern times. Urbanization, globalization, and changing lifestyles have led to a decline in the daily use of traditional garments. However, initiatives by cultural organizations, fashion designers, and artisans aim to keep these traditions alive. Museums such as the Iran National Museum of Anthropology play a crucial role in preserving and displaying historical garments. Educational programs and online platforms also help raise awareness about the cultural significance of traditional clothing.

Conclusion

Iranian traditional clothing is a testament to the country’s rich culture. Each garment is a piece of art, weaving together history, geography, and identity. While modernity poses challenges, the enduring beauty and significance of these outfits inspire efforts to preserve and celebrate them. By honoring this heritage, Iranians not only connect with their past but also share their vibrant culture with the world.

 

Top 10 Iranian Movies, A Journey Through the Best of Iranian Cinema

Iranian cinema has been one of the most artistic, reflective, and influential film industries in the world from the past until now. Known for its poetic storytelling, social commentary, and deep exploration of human emotions, Iranian filmmakers have captivated audiences both domestically and internationally. Over the years, directors like Abbas Kiarostami, Asghar Farhadi, and Majid Majidi have garnered global honors, earning prestigious awards at international film festivals. We will explore the top 10 Iranian movies that have left an indelible mark on global cinema, celebrating the beauty and complexity of Iranian storytelling.

1- A Separation (2011) 

Director: Asghar Farhadi 

Genre: Drama 

Awards: Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (2012), Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film (2012)

Undoubtedly, one of the most well-known Iranian films, Separation, is a masterful exploration of family dynamics, morality, and the complexities of Iranian society. The film centers on a married couple, Nader and Simin, on the brink of divorce. Simin wants to leave Iran to provide a better future for their daughter, and Nader refuses to abandon his ailing father. This moral dilemma sets off a chain of events that spirals into a legal and personal crisis for both families involved. What makes A Separation so powerful is its ability to portray the human condition with subtle depth and complexity. Farhadi’s direction allows each character to express their motivations and emotions authentically, creating a film that resonates with audiences worldwide. Its universal themes of love, guilt, and sacrifice make it a must-watch for anyone interested in Iranian cinema.

2- Taste of Cherry (1997)

 

Director: Abbas Kiarostami 

Genre: Drama 

Awards: Palme d’Or at Cannes Film Festival (1997)

Abbas Kiarostami’s, Taste of Cherry, is an existential meditation on life, death, and human connection. The film follows a man named Mr. Badii, who is driving around Tehran looking for someone to help him commit suicide. Along the way, he encounters various individuals who offer different perspectives on life, ultimately forcing him to confront his desires and decisions. “The film’s minimalist approach, along with Kiarostami’s extended takes and realistic dialogue, establishes a reflective atmosphere that prompts viewers to think about their own lives. Taste of Cherry is frequently regarded as one of the best examples of Iranian cinema, presenting deep philosophical insights within a straightforward storyline.

3- Children of Heaven (1997)

 

Director: Majid Majidi 

Genre: Family/Drama 

Awards: Academy Award Nomination for Best Foreign Language Film (1999)

Children of Heaven is a heartwarming and emotionally uplifting film about a young boy named Ali who accidentally loses his sister Zahra’s shoes. Too poor to buy her a new pair, Ali plans to share his shoes with her, leading to challenges and adventures. Majid Majidi’s direction shines through in this film as he captures the innocence and resilience of children while also portraying the harsh realities of poverty. The film’s simplicity and emotional depth have made it a favorite among audiences worldwide, especially for its depiction of familial love and sacrifice.

4- The Cow (1969) 

Director: Dariush Mehrjui 

Genre: Drama 

Awards: International Critics Prize at Venice Film Festival (1971)

The Cow is regarded as a pioneering film in Iranian cinema. It marks the beginning of the Iranian New Wave. The film tells the story of Masht Hassan, a farmer whose beloved cow dies while he is away. Consumed by grief, Hassan begins to believe that he is the cow, leading to his mental deterioration. This film is a powerful allegory about identity, loss, and the fragile nature of reality. The Cow also sheds light on the psychological impact of rural poverty, with a storyline that is both symbolic and deeply rooted in Iranian culture. The film’s stark cinematography and haunting performances make it an unforgettable cinematic experience.

5- Close-Up (1990) 

Director: Abbas Kiarostami 

Genre: Docudrama 

Awards: FIPRESCI Prize at Istanbul Film Festival (1992)

Close-Up blurs the line between documentary and fiction in a way only Abbas Kiarostami can achieve. The film tells the true story of a man named Hossayn Sabzian, who impersonates the famous Iranian filmmaker Mohsen Makhmalbaf to gain the trust of a middle-class family. Here is a rephrased version of the sentence: The film recreates the circumstances surrounding Sabzian’s arrest and trial by blending actual footage with dramatized reenactments. Kiarostami’s Close-Up is a profound exploration of identity, deception, and the power of cinema itself. The film challenges viewers to question the nature of truth and illusion, making it one of the most intellectually engaging films in Iranian cinema.

6- The Salesman (2016)

Director: Asghar Farhadi 

Ggenre: Drama/Thriller 

Awards: Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film (2017), Best Screenplay Award at Cannes Film Festival (2016)

Asghar Farhadi’s film, The Salesman, is another masterpiece that delves into the complexities of relationships and social dynamics. The film follows a couple, Emad and Rana, who are forced to move to a new apartment after their previous home becomes unsafe. One night, an intruder attacks Rana in their new home, setting off a series of events that test the couple’s marriage and sense of justice. Farhadi masterfully builds tension throughout the film, turning what seems like a simple domestic drama into a gripping psychological thriller. The Salesman tackles themes of revenge, forgiveness, and the consequences of trauma, making it one of the standout films of recent Iranian cinema.

7- The Wind Will Carry Us (1999)

Director: Abbas Kiarostami 

Genre: Drama 

Awards: Grand Special Jury Prize at Venice Film Festival (1999)

The Wind Will Carry Us is another of Kiarostami’s deeply philosophical films. It centers on a journalist and his team who travel to a remote village in Iran to document a local ritual. As they wait for an elderly woman to die to complete their story, they become increasingly absorbed in the slow rhythms of village life. This film is a poetic meditation on life, death, and the human experience. The title is inspired by a poem by the famous Iranian poet Forough Farrokhzad, and the film reflects Kiarostami’s trademark style of blending everyday life with larger existential questions.

8- About Elly (2009)

Director: Asghar Farhadi 

Genre: Mystery/Drama 

Awards: Silver Bear for Best Director at Berlin International Film Festival (2009)

In About Elly, Farhadi creates a tense and suspenseful drama about a group of friends on a vacation by the Caspian Sea. When Elly, a young woman invited to the trip, mysteriously disappears, the group is forced to confront secrets and lies that threaten to unravel their relationships. The film is a compelling exploration of social norms, morality, and the role of truth in personal relationships. Farhadi’s tight direction and skillful storytelling keep viewers on edge throughout, making About Elly a standout in his work.

9- Where Is the Friend’s House? (1987)

Director: Abbas Kiarostami 

Genre: Drama 

Awards: Bronze Leopard at Locarno Film Festival (1989)

A simple yet poignant film, Where Is the Friend’s House? It tells the story of a young boy named Ahmed who sets out to return his classmate’s notebook after accidentally taking it home. The film follows Ahmed as he navigates the difficulties of finding his friend’s house in a nearby village. “Kiarostami’s direction shows the innocence and determination of children while also pointing out the problems of bureaucracy and adult neglect. The film’s beautiful storytelling and focus on a child’s moral choices have made it a beloved classic in Iranian cinema.”

10- Persepolis (2007)

Director: Marjane Satrapi 

Genre: Animation/Drama 

Awards: Jury Prize at Cannes Film Festival (2007)

Persepolis is an animated film based on Marjane Satrapi’s autobiographical graphic novel of the same name. The film chronicles her coming-of-age during the Islamic Revolution, depicting her struggles as a young girl growing up in a politically and socially turbulent Iran. Satrapi’s unique storytelling style, combined with the film’s stark black-and-white animation, creates a powerful narrative about identity, freedom, and the immigrant experience. Persepolis is a visually stunning and emotionally resonant film that provides a unique perspective on Iranian history and culture. These ten films represent the best of Iranian cinema, offering viewers a rich tapestry of stories that explore universal themes of humanity, identity, and morality. Whether you’re new to Iranian films or a seasoned cinephile, these movies offer a window into the depth and beauty of Iran’s cinematic landscape.

Persian Mirror Art

If we do a little research into the culture, customs, and ethnic coverage of Iranian culture, we can notice that mirrors have a special place. As it has been for a long time, water and mirrors are symbols of brightness, purity, luck, truthfulness, and serenity, so the reason for using mirrors in the decoration of monuments and Iranian architecture may derived from this culture. Iranian traditional mirror work is a kind of ornament in the interior design of Iranian buildings, which Iranian artists created. Principally, customary Iranian mirror work involves regular, symmetrical, and geometric designs with small and large mirror pieces. Mirrors cut into geometric shapes and foliage (inspired by flowers and plants) are used to decorate the interior surfaces of the structure. The reflection of light in the many mirror pieces creates shine and beauty. The art of mirror work is not only used as a decoration of the building but also as a suitable and excellent coating for the strength and durability of the monuments.

History of the Art of Mirror Work

In the 10th century AH, various mirrors were imported to Iran from Europe, and many mirrors were broken during transportation. Iranian artists invented this beautiful art to utilize the broken fragments of mirrors.

The first mirror work was in the courthouse of Shah Tahmasp Safavi, the king of Iran at the time, in 1557 (965 AH), decorated with mirror work. After the capital of Iran moved from Qazvin City to Isfahan City, the mirror work art was used in many of the royal palaces of Isfahan. Among these palaces, the Mirror Pavilion Mansion gained more fame due to the extensive use of mirrors in the ornament of the mansion. The Mirror Pavilion Mansion, like Chehel Sotoon Palace, has a porch with 18 mirrored columns, and the hall and ceiling of the porch are also covered with mirrors. The reflection of the Zayandeh Rud and the groves of its northern shore in the mirrors of this building creates a unique view.

The Chehel Sotoun Palace was built between 1642 and 1668 (1052 and 1078 AH) during the reign of Shah Abbas II, and many mirrors were used in this palace. Tall mirrors, full-length mirrors, small pieces of mirrors, and colored glass were used on the ceiling, porch, and center reception hall (Mirror Hall) to decorate the palace. In the Chehel Sotoon Palace of Isfahan, a large and transparent mirror was installed on the wall at the head of the pond, which was called the Forty Columns Mirror or the World Mirror, and its size and brightness were so great that the images of ordinary people who entered the Chehel Sotoon carriage could be seen in the mirror.

Gemelli Carreri, a famous Italian adventurer and traveler, wrote in his trip to Azerbaijan to visit the house and palace of Mirza Tahir, the ruler of Azerbaijan in Tabriz, in 1105 AH: In one of the inner courtyards of the room, there is an esthetic mirror work, where not only the walls but also the fireplace are decorated with shining fragments of mirror, creating a dazzling scene under the light. After the fall of the Safavid era, the mirror-making industry fell into decline. The resumption of this art was with the construction of the courthouse of Karim Khan Zand in Shiraz, which was destroyed in 1794 (1209 AH) by order of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar.

The columns, Khatam doors, and large mirrors were transported to Tehran for expansion and reconstruction of the Dar-e-Amara porch, now known as the Marmortronens veranda. Mirror-making had a gradual development and expansion but was noticeable in the 13th century AH. Thus, beautiful and extraordinary works such as the Shams-ol-Emareh hall and rooms (Mirror Hall) of the Golestan Palace in 1299 AH and several shrines have been decorated with this mirror work art.

Evolution and innovation are evident in the mirrored sections of the Green Palace, located in the Saadabad Cultural and Historical Complex of Shemiran, plus the Marmar Palace, built in 1927 and 1936. In the following years, the art of mirroring expanded beyond historical and religious sites, being incorporated into various structures such as restaurants, shops, and homes.

Mirroring Methods and Designs

Before starting to ornament with mirrors, first, a designer schemes the main design on paper and then uses special needles to transfer the design to walls, ceilings, and columns. After that, mirror fragments are glued to the surfaces, and the thickness of the mirrors is routinely about one millimeter. This task requires a lot of skill and patience. Mirrorwork has two types of mirroring methods: flat and embossed.

Flat Mirroring

In this method, the design is completely adhered to the surfaces. This enables the mirrors to be attached flatly and without angles. The final design has no protrusions.

Embossed Mirror Work

In this method, mirrors are affixed at an angle based on the original design, and the creation of volume accompanies the execution of this design. These designs are in the form of raised and recessed geometries that create a three-dimensional and embossed appearance. This method is commonly used in Iranian architecture, especially on the ceilings of religious buildings such as the Ali Ibn Hamza Mausoleum in Shiraz.

Common Designs and Combinations in Mirror Work

The most widespread mirroring design is the knotting or knotting technique. This type of design is widely used in all branches of Iranian art, such as mosque tiling.

Another design is framing (in the Persian language, it is Ghab Sazi or Ghab Bandi), used to decorate ceilings. Sometimes, the frames that make up the ceiling are only rectangular mirrors. One of the best examples of this design is the ceiling (Mirror Hall) of Golestan Palace. Another type of mirror work is the ruby design (in Persian, it is Yaghuti), which can also be found in the Marmar Palace and the Abbasi Hotel in Isfahan. This style of mirror work utilizes colorful glass, and its designs predominantly feature flowers, bushes, bergamot (referred to as “Toranj” in Persian), and half-bergamot (known as “Nim-Toranj” in Persian).

Muqarnas mirroring is a distinctive style of traditional mirror design, primarily applied to flat surfaces and often found in sacred sites. Volumetric shapes have been popular in the past and present. These include half-circles, known as cup bowls or cup flowers, or covered muqarnas with mirrors, used in the half-domed ceilings of porches or under domes. Another common combination is the merging of mirror art and wood carving, which can be seen in the Emarat-e-Badgir of Golestan Palace in Tehran and the Qavam House in Shiraz. Other places decorated with this art include the Saadabad Museum, Niavaran Palace in Tehran, Nasir al-Molk Mosque, Vakil Bath in Shiraz, Jame’ Mosque of Isfahan, and the Soltaniyeh Dome in Zanjan.

Modern Mirror Work

In recent years, the art of mirroring has expanded beyond royal palaces and is now commonly found in various settings. Restaurants, supermarkets, shopping malls, hotels, and even private homes are incorporating mirror work to enhance the attractiveness and diversity of their spaces. This trend has sparked innovations in traditional mirroring techniques. Designers and architects utilize mirrors in the interior of buildings to create a modern and good-looking space and new patterns and schemes.

These designs are known as modern mirroring. In modern Iranian mirroring, designs utilize more simple decorations. For example, in Iran Mall, the largest entertainment and commercial complex in Iran, the art of mirror work has been used well. Modern mirror work has various schemes and models, including rhombus mirrors, triangle mirrors, broken mirrors, accordion mirrors, solar mirrors, irregular mirrors, jigsaw mirrors, waterfall mirrors, and jeweled mirrors.

The art of mirroring has a rich history in Iranian architecture, encompassing traditional and trendy mirroring. Mirrors bring spaces to life and enhance the perception of breadth and depth within them. This technique can be utilized as art or decorative elements in various spaces. Mirrors are commonly found in religious and historical sites, and foreign travelers are often captivated by the magnificence and intricacy of Iranian mirror work, considering it truly remarkable.

 

Persian Music from an Ancient to a Modern Narrative

 

The melodic rhythm of Persian music is sufficient to enchant the heart and ears of every listener and remind us that Persia is one of the world’s oldest civilizations that has enhanced the spiritual growth of mankind for centuries through the production of the finest art and literature. This mesmerizing music has a long history developed hand in hand with the history and politics of Persia that discloses the untold realities in the form of melody and sound. We can look at Persian music from two periods: pre-Islam and post-Islam.

 

Pre-Islam period 

 

Aryans 

 

As the Aryans moved toward the southern province of Fars, they got familiar with the Elamite, and Assyrian civilizations, leading to cultural and musical interchange. In this period, music was not an independent art, rather it was performed along with local hymns at military and religious ceremonies. Several gold and silver objects have been found from this era that is believed to be signal horns used for hunting and warfare.

 

Achaemenid Era 

 

Historical evidence confirmed that ancient Iranian has the richest musical culture and knowledge from the early time. This is supported by the bas-reliefs and other artifacts dating back to the Achaemenid period (559-331 B.C) that demonstrate a set of people playing trigonal harps, large tambourines, long-necked lutes, and double-flutes. It seemed that for the Achaemenians (559-331 B.C), music had a special position in different facets of their everyday life from entertainment and royal and national events to religious ceremonies and rituals. Epic Hymn was read aloud for arousing a sense of bravery and valor among soldiers.

 

At the time of Cyrus, the Great, trumpets and kettledrums were played to signal an attack on the battlefields. Training the brass instruments due to their prevalent use in warfare was strongly important. It was during this period some concepts from Greek music were introduced to Persia, but it seems that the influence of Persian music outweighed the Greek one. After the Achaemenid empire was overthrown by the Alexander of Macedonia, Greeks learned the kettledrum and Kus from Iranians. According to bas-reliefs found in Ilam, the most common instruments in this era were, namely tarp, tambourine, kettledrum, and trumpet. 

 

Sassanid Era 

 

The Sassanid empire is the last ruling monarch in Persia before the advent of Islam in Iran. Persian Music reached its culmination during the Sassanid period, and it is considered its golden age. Sassanid kings showed great enthusiasm for the promotion of Persian music. Musicians and players were called Konyagar and Rameshgar, which means minstrel, the former is a Pahlavi word, and the latter is a Persian word. It is narrated when Ardeshir Babakan classified the courtiers and elders into privileged classes, due to his passion for music, he promoted the status of Rameshgaran and Konyagaran so that they were considered equal to the courtiers.

Ardeshir Babakan categorized the government officials into seven categories, the special ministers of the king and the court were in the first row of this classification. After them, the great Zoroastrian cleric and the Chief Judge, and in the third row, important government officials, each of whom ruled in a certain territory of the country, along with their deputies, and in the next rank, singers and musicians, or anyone whose job was related to music. They were placed in a row where the highest officials of the government were placed.

 

At the time of Bahram Gure, a large number of minstrels from India were brought to Iran for his royal court. These minstrels that came to Iran were called Kawli or Kabuli and Lori or Loli (referring to the fact that they later settled in Lorestan). Also, at the time of Khosro Parviz, musicians were the highest class of the court and they played music and presented Persian poetry to the king at important ceremonies such as Mehregan and Nowruz. 

 

Great musicians lived during this era such as Nima, Barbad, Sarkesh, Bamshad, Ramtin, and Azadeh. Barbad composed 360 banquet melodies for each day of 12 months of the Sassanian calendar, which is called 360 tones. His masterpiece is still sustained in the form of musical Dastgahs in Iran. Barbad’s Dastgahs, also known as Khosravani’s Hymn, is the first music modal system in the world.

 

Nakisa was another great musician, composer, harpist, and singer of the Sassanid Era, whose name is mentioned in the famous Iranian literary and history books such as Khosrow and Shirin by Nazemi, and Shirin and Khosrow by Amir Khosrow Dehlavi. The most popular instruments in the Sassanid period included the harp, Konar, Tanbour, Barbat, Ney, and Tombak. Some of them such as Tanbour, Barbat, Tombak, and Ney are still used in Persian music. 

 

Post-Islam Period 

 

Islamic period 

 

The emergence of Islam in Iran brings about the integration of the music of Arabs and Persians. The integration of these two musical styles has always brought the question that which music has influenced the other one. This confluence lasted for two centuries till the flourishing period of the Abbasid caliphate at Baghdad. It seems that while caliphs were considering the theological disputes regarding musical activity, eagerly favored music in the royal court. Even, a few caliphs were musicians themselves. Ibrahim al-Mausili (d.804) and his son Ishaq al-Mausili were the most appreciated Iranian musicians in the court of the Abbasid caliphs.

 

During the Islamic period great Islamic music theorists such as al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Safi al-Din, greatly contributed to the body of knowledge on Persian music. Al-Kindi is considered the foremost Islamic music theorist, whose treatises are the first notation about music found in Arab sources. It is narrated that he added a fifth string to the Oud instrument. Al-Farabi is called the second master after Aristotle, who was known as the first master, his book Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (Grand Book on Music) is also a great masterpiece in the Islamic period in which every aspect of music is described.

Mongol Period 

 

The Mongol occupation of the Abbasid Caliphate terminated the Islamic period. Two paradoxical features of the Mongol rulers need to be pointed out. On one hand, the Mongol rulers at Samarkand royal court paid special attention to the promotion of art and culture by motivating the men of letters and artists. On the other hand, to hold their empire, Mongol rulers attacked the cities and destroyed all important places such as mosques, palaces, and more importantly the great libraries. Hundreds of thousands of priceless manuscripts and books were thrown into the river. With this situation, the legacy of Persian music during this period remained undocumented.  

 

Safavid Era 

 

Although Iranian architecture and fine arts reached their peak during the Safavid dynasty, it seems that Persian music experienced its lowest point and this is due to the religious atmosphere ruling the country. Safavid rulers recognized the Shia branch of Islam as the official religion of the country to bring unity to the whole society. As a result, music lost its position in society and became the profession of illiterate entertainers.

 

Qajar and Pahlavi periods 

 

During the Qajar period, Persian music started to be revitalized and got back its social respect and approval. The Activity of musicians in the royal court resumed. During the reign of Nasir ed-Din Shah (1848-1896), Western music was introduced into Iran, a school of music was founded in Tehran, and many French musicians such as Alfred J. B. Lemaire were employed to train military band players and music instructors. Mirza Abdullah Farahani (d. 1917) and Ali Naqi Vaziri (b. 1886) are two prominent figures of these periods who took outstanding measures in a way that Persian music firmly established its glorious status despite the rise and fall of history. Mirza Abdullah Farahani collected and categorized all the melodies and assembled a large repertoire of traditional pieces. This assemblage is named Radif which is the basis of Iranian classical music known in Persian as Musiqi-e Sonnati.

 

The classical Persian music system includes Radif, Gusheh, and dastgahs. Radif, meaning “series” or “row” in Persian languages, involves a repertoire of all Iranian classic melodies. This repertoire, by itself, is consisted of 400 short pieces known as Gusheh, meaning “corner” in the Persian language, which is differentiated based on their characteristics. All these Gusheh are categorized into 12 Dastgahs, meaning systems in the Persian language. 

 

During the Pahlavi period, Ali Naqi Vaziri also contributed to Persian music greatly. Ali Naqi Vaziri started to modernize Persian music. He established a conservatory to instruct Persian music based on the notation and styles of western music. For the first time in Iran, he held music classes for women and also organized an orchestra including the violin, cello, flute, piano, and tar. In the late 1970s, despite the widespread production of Iranian National Television and Radio to promote Iranian classical music, this genre of Persian music did not gain that much interest from people, and all the cabarets of Tehran were overwhelmed with Western-Iranian Pop music.

 

Persian Music after the 1979 revolution 

 

After the Islamic revolution of 1979, Islamic ideologies and doctrine were inspiring the country, and there was a prevalent belief that anything inspired by western ideologies should be eliminated from Iranian society. So, non-classical music such as Pop music experienced a great decline. Many musicians and university professors immigrated to other countries and the music department at Tehran University got closed. On the other hand, after 1988, Iranian classical music again witnessed considerable growth. Many great musicians and singers such as Mohammad Reza Shajarian, Mohammad Reza Lotfi, Hossein Alizadeh, and Faramarz Payvar, among others, appeared and flourished on the path of Classical music.

Mani The Painter Prophet

Manichaeism is one of the two specific movements of the Sassanid period. Mani emerged in the early third century AD. The rise of Manichaeism in Iran coincided with the efforts of the Sassanid kings to create religious unity in the country to unite Iran and return to the greatness of the Achaemenid era.

They wanted the same interpretation of the teachings of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian religion of the Prophet, as justifying their rule and legitimizing their every move and order.

In those crucial times, Manichaeism came into the display. Some Sassanid kings and elders welcomed Mani. Mani combined elements of the Christian, Zoroastrian, and Buddhist religions. In any land this religion infiltrated, it kept the critical substances and foundations of the public religions of that land. For this reason, Mani was closer to Zoroastrianism in Iran, to Buddhism in Indochina, and in the west to Christianity.

At the beginning of the third century AD, political disputes and disparate cultures and rival religions in the Mesopotamian region had made this land the center of the clash of the two empires of Iran and Rome. The collision of two cultures of Greece and Iran and the two religions of Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Christianity, which had just become the official religion of the Romans, and Zoroastrianism, which played a similar role in Iran.

Mani was born in Babylon in 216 AD (according to 215 AD) to Parthian parents of purely Iranian descent. His father’s name was Patig, who lived in Hamadan, and since he was always searching for the truth, he left for Babylon, the land of religious thoughts and beliefs.

When Mani was a six-year-old child, his father joined the Gnostics (a mystical sect of Christianity). Living in Babylon had a profound effect on Mani. The Gnostics gained the highest share in Manichaean beliefs. Therefore, in many cases, Manichaeism can be considered a mystical sect.

According to Manichaeism, During Mani’s youth, a spiritual revolution arose in him. A voice ordered him to let go of the path he knew was corrupt and found his religion which was all based upon revelation. From then on, Mani called himself the messenger of enlightenment.

Manichaeism spread rapidly in the East and the West because its religious and preaching books were in vernacular and understood by all. Soon it became a great rival to the followers of Christ, Buddha, and Zoroaster. Around 300 AD, nearly a quarter of a century after Kartir (the Magi) killed Mani, Manichaeism spread from the Levant, Egypt, and North Africa to Spain and France.

Mani had grown up among believers in Christian mysticism and the Gnostic sect. As a result of these thoughts and, of course, getting acquainted with the Zoroastrian teachings that believed in a certain duality, he established his religious belief. Manichaeism.

Mani believed that there is a God who is the embodiment of all purity and light. From a Gnostics interpretation, this God is not the one who created the earth and the matter since these objects are full of demons and darkness. Thus there should be a mediator who constructs, builds, and is no longer an initiator; he is a maker.

 

In Mani’s worldview, he believed that before anything, there were two realms. One light and the other one dark. There was nothing between these two realms except the void. The realm of darkness was an unstable one with the prince of darkness or the devil as its natural ruler. Due to these disturbances, the devil encounters the border between himself and the pure realm and becomes aware of light and beauty’s existence. He greedily seeks it.

The great God, the Initiator, knows with his vision that if the Prince of Darkness attacks, he will shatter and pollute his realm. Like a commander who sacrifices part of his army to keep the whole land safe, he sends his son to fight the Prince of Darkness. Then, to save him, the Initiator God summons a mediator, and thus the earth, the sky, and the human beings are created.

Explaining how or why this creation happened was a complex process with Mani-specific religious reasons: How the son’s companions, who were all light, were swallowed up by the male and female demons. What plan did the Initiator have in mind to release these pieces of light that eventually led to the creation of our present universe?

Every human being has a light in their being that should be saved from the painful cycle of life through the steps and teachings of Manichaeism. They must reach Nirvana with their knowledge and awareness, their self-denial, fasting, and austerity.

At the end of time, Christ emerges. He will guide people back to their essence, where they came from; The realm of light. Eventually, a terrible fire will consume the world with its flames to free the last particles of light. The earth and the sky will separate, and the Prince of Darkness will perish. Those who reach salvation will live in the realm of eternal light.

Mani was creative and brilliant. He thought his ideas and philosophy would be too hard for people to contemplate. First, he had a team of professional translators translate his books to the native language of the people he talked to about his beliefs.

Secondly, he used paintings to describe his thoughts. Miniatures, as they call it now. Mani saw this art as an effective means of disseminating religious teachings. He drew many images to explain and justify the principles of his beliefs and worldview. To express the concept of fusion of light, darkness and to describe the salvation of the soul and the paradise of light, he used a valuable theological and visual tradition to create the most beautiful paintings and writings.

Arzhang by Mani was a painted book about the creation and evolution of the universe.

Arzhang seems to have been a copy of the Manichaean Gospel that illustrated Manichaean beliefs. It showed how the final pieces of light find their way to the chariots of the moon, the sun, and the perpetual and infinite light.

The Manichaeans used precious metals to display light in their works. The use of metals such as gold and silver, which became very common in Iranian miniatures, is a direct continuation of the same tradition of Manichaeism art. The use of these metals is to reflect light and create rays that enter into a spiritual exchange with the viewer’s soul.

Manichaeism spread from the east to Indochina territory and from the west to the heart of Europe. This ritual left undeniable effects on art, especially on miniature, music, decorative arts, calligraphy, and gilding.

The Manichaean tradition of painting dates back to the founder of Manichaeism. More than any other religious founder who has ever appeared, Mani has practiced the fine arts and provided descriptive forms for a glorious life. Not only did he invent a way of calligraphy in which he wrote his books, even after being translated into Persian and Central Asian languages, but he also personally illustrated his works artistically. Arzhang is a grand treasure of artistic tradition in his propaganda and educational preaches.

Arzhang depicts the most cosmological teachings in the commentaries of Arzhang. There is a miniature of the great fire at the end of the world that shows Mani’s beliefs in detail. That is the same piece recovered in Turfan, which contains a series of interconnected similes and represents the destructive force of that great fire. This text is one of the few pieces that we have from Arzhang’s interpretation.

Archeologists have found an example of Manichaean art in the excavations of Turfan and Khocho.

The bottom line is: Mani was not just a profit. He was smart and had a determined mind. Mani was ahead of his time and knew what to do perfectly. He combined art with religion, and though his rituals were hard to commit to, he had followers everywhere he went.

 

One Thousand and One Nights (Part 2)

The book One Thousand and One Nights had an ancestor. Even that ancestor had much older forefathers, the old myth, and the story of Zahhak.

Maybe this is a wrong theory but, as we get to Zahhak, this becomes clearer. It is better not to forget that the main concepts in philosophy, psychology, and other human-related sciences, rose from ancient myths. As Mir Jalaleddin Kazzazi says, for people, there are only three ways to discover the world.

How do we get to Zahhak the demon? In the beginning, there was a myth. Myths created the whole world view for people and, it was their answer for everything. Then philosophy came through and, logic gained life and showed people the way. In modern times, the one we live in now, our world view is based upon science.

As much as the scientific methodology has permitted us, literals have done researches on One Thousand and One Nights. But, science could not tell us why or even how this act of courage, these short stories, and the book became so influential.

It seems that even the most prejudiced scientists turn to old myths when they cannot give a clear answer. Many psychological disorders or complexes have myth names.

There could be one named Zahhak, but Iran did not pursue psychology like that.

Long before Zahhak, when the whole Aryan tribe lived in Siberia, they had mutual myths and stories. That is why, after they separated, the matching figures, characters, and story patterns exist all around the world; In Iliad and Shahnameh, for instance.

Long story short, Carl Jung talked about the Collective Unconscious. One Thousand and One Nights is a written Collective unconscious, and it starts with a myth. A myth each tribe of the Aryans took with themselves. And when they created their unique civilization, it came back to them in the form of a book, which they all recognized unconsciously. Like how they re-wrote the Zahhak story, for instance.

Once upon a time, there were only gods and demons. Gods created life and, the demons killed the life. Gods decided to create something, a spirit, a goddess that could give life demons could not destroy her. All the creatures depended on that essence of life.

The demons were clever too. They captivated that soul or spirit and took her powers. Then, a hero rises, frees the goddess, and life comes back. Some parts of this old myth are told with assumptions. But there are signs to prove it. At least in Iran, there are similar stories that narrate the same myth in disguise. That is where Zahhak enters.

During the Sassanid dynasty, when scriveners started to write down everything, instead of just memorizing them, they wrote a book called One Thousand Tales. The book got lost when Arabs invaded the Persian Empire.

Later in history, we hear about an Arabic book with a familiar name, One Thousand and One Nights. We know that during the Abbasid caliphate, there was a time when translators got to work and translated countless books from Latin (Greek) and Pahlavi to Arabic. Ferdowsi says many times in Shahnameh that his sources were the tales heard from farmers and Khwaday-Namag. The name of Zahhak emerges only in Shahnameh, but in holy historical books, there was a demon with the same characteristics as Zahhak.

Again, somewhere around the 18th century A.C., One Thousand and One Nights was translated to French and entered Europa. It became wildly popular and famous, till finally it was translated back into Persian.

On one hand, we know there is this old myth, then we know for sure a book named One Thousand Tales existed. This book also contained stories to amuse and heal the readers. There are records of the book in Al-Fihrist, for example, and in other encyclopedia books.

After listing these facts, we look for other signs. As Bahram Beyzai believes, in other myths we can see the exact story pattern with familiar names. The most vivid one is the chapter about Zahhak in Shahnameh.

Zahhak is a demon but not like those who had enmity with gods. Zahhak was naive, and the Devil played him. The Devil kisses both of his shoulders, and two furious snakes come out of them. The only way to tame them was to feed them with human brains. So, each night, the slaughters brought two young men, and the chefs made brain stews for the snakes. Sounds familiar, right?

If we dig deeper, there are verses in Shahnameh about a night when Zahhak (Shahryar) wakes up frightened from a nightmare. He was guilty of murdering innocent men and askes his wife Shahrnaz or Shahrnavaz (like Shahrzad, Scheherazade) to interpret the dream. And from other verses, we learn that Shahrnaz and her sister kept Zahhak busy with storytelling.

Why? Did they enjoy the company of the snakes? No! there were people outside the court uprising against Zahhak. Each night, the chefs saved one life and led him out to join the others. In the end, a hero rises, and he captivates Zahhak, frees the girls who were of royal blood, who later give birth to Iran’s ancestors.

There are parts where Zahhak grew conscious and regretted his actions. The stories were working but, the narration of Zahak is told from only one angle.

All the elements of the old myth are right there. In One Thousand and One Nights, One Thousand Tales, the chapter of Zahhak, folk songs, and Persian nursery rhymes.

The Arabic translator was also a creative writer. He changed the stories to become the atmosphere of Bagdad. The short stories represent the main shape of the city as in costumes, allies, and bazaars. That is the reason for naming the book Arabian Nights as well.

The point is, where science draws strict lines between reality and fiction, where philosophy casts total certainty aside and doubts everything the mind reaches, we need a unique concept to gather around it. This concept should have the power to unify and live beyond time. We turn to myth for a strong reason. What Zahhak did, his fate, and the things that happened in between reflecting our fear of always being trapped.

One Thousand and One Nights is not just an amusing book. It is about our captivated souls, which either a hero from the outside could save or we could try treatments such as literature. Gather under the wings of written words and let them soothe our neuroticism. What if we took one thousand and one night to redeem ourselves?

Shahrzad (Scheherazade) did, aside from influencing many modern writers such as Haruki Murakami, Jorge Luis Borges, Goethe, Pushkin, Tolstoy, Marcel Purest, and others, was that she established or introduced a method of therapy.

This way of unrecognized psychology kept itself alive during the time. When King Bahram, the V, ordered many musicians to come on and sing for people in the street, he had such a concept in mind. There is also Persian Naqqali which is an old-style and form of storytelling in Iran.

Though One Thousand and One Nights book has deep roots in Iran (summarised under the myth of Zahhak), it is a transnational phenomenon in the literary world. Myths, if used in the right way, could bring people together and, the stories narrating these myths could help us save our souls.

One Thousand and One Nights (Part 1)

This blog is for anyone who has found therapy through literature. It is about people who have felt the magic of written words. One Thousand and One Nights stories are about a woman who decides to try to use this magic.

We have all heard the name of the One Thousand and One Nights. We know a whole lot about its adventures. Most of us are familiar with the entire context: A princess once told stories to a prince for One Thousand and One Nights. But why? What happened when Scheherazade started telling these stories? Why only One Thousand and One Nights? Did she tell stories night after night? Why what she did was so grand?

It all goes back to when a woman betrayed his husband. Scheherazade is not in the story yet. That man happened to be a regional King of Iran named Shahryar. There are so many details about One Thousand and One Nights we don’t know.

Shahryar for instance could be the name of any king because the word itself means KING. Anyway, was he a good man or evil? We do not know. We could only guess that he was sensitive and perhaps had a terrible mother. The thing is, he loved his wife and trusted her above all. When that much trust and love parishes by betrayal, it turns into a nervous breakdown.

Shahryar was in disbelief, denial, and pain. Then rage took over and vengeance. The king, the man underneath the crown, suddenly turns into a beast and a demon.

So, each night the avenger king marries a young and beautiful girl and kills her in the morning. It seems so that he had a philosophy. It was not to give the woman the opportunity to betray him ever again. Shahryar was hurt, and by making others suffer, he suffocated his own.

This revenge system and philosophy took on for several years. It got to the point where many people either ran away with their daughters or made them ill.

Shahryar was after fresh meat like a lion in the grid. If the court knew of such cases and didn’t tell or bring them to the king, it would be counted as high treason and result in decapitation. The people were about to revolt, and the kingdom was running out of women.

The Vizier was in charge of finding the girls, and from the book, we could see he was a good man. He had the same role as Armyel and Carmayel in the story of Zahak in Shahnameh. We will discuss the resemblances between these two stories and the grand myth underneath them in the second chapter of this blog.

This one is about Scheherazade. Here is where she enters One Thousand and One Nights. She is the one who creates One Thousand and One Nights. Why? To simply stay alive.

Scheherazade was the eldest daughter of the Vizier, and she stepped forward. Was she in love with Shahryar? Who could tell? Was she playing the heroine? Did she feel sorry for the people and the kingdom? Maybe. Did she think her plan would work out? Definitely, No!

But one thing is definite here. Scheherazade, as any gifted writer, believed in the magic of literature. Above all, she believed in the healing power of stories and her ability to tell stories. Scheherazade was sure that stories could save lives.

On the night of the wedding, when Scheherazade thought it was her last chance, she asked Shahryar to let her tell a story to her younger sister as she did before. The final story she was about to tell was the start of many others. There is how she changed her fate and others.

Donyazad enters their chamber, and Scheherazade starts. Shahryar listens. Maybe unwillingly at first because he had no choice but then, when he finds himself entwined with the story and curious enough to want to know what will happen in the end, Scheherazade dexterously stops.

Shahryar was in a dilemma. Listening to stories was new to him, and the stories meant something to him. He got engaged with the characters. He wanted to know about their fate. And this is when Scheherazade, aware of his curiosity, asks Shahryar to let her live another night so that he could hear the rest of the story.

Scheherazade chose a style in storytelling. When one story has not ended yet, she started another, leaving the audience in suspense. She goes on like this for One Thousand and One Nights.

It took her three years. She gave birth to three sons. But did she stop? No! The fate of a nation depended on these stories. Scheherazade was not yet free of the fear of her life.

The situation Scheherazade was dealing with was indescribable. It was like giving the correct answer to an endless list of questions with a gun to your head.

One night in the middle of one story, Shahryar yawned, and Scheherazade grasped her breath, waiting for the gun to shoot her head off, all her body intense. She died a thousand times each night. What if the king realized her storytelling plot? What if she told the same story twice? Shahryar had a good memory.

It was enough to make Scheherazade slip somewhere, and yet, she continued to tell her stories under such pressures.

Scheherazade followed her belief. The things she was trying to show the king were the things he needed to heal. Her efforts pay off. One night the king turns to her and says, you have redeemed me, Scheherazade. I was a beast, and now I can feel again.

Shahryar was no longer in pain, and the hatred was gone. The stories had fulfilled their mission. Shahryar was treated, a nation was saved.

This was how Scheherazade created the book One Thousand and One nights. But is that all? Why are there so many mysteries behind such a tale? Where did all these stories come from? How it has influenced so many writers even now? Does the magic continue?

–When Scheherazade reached this part, she became silent and slept…–

Celebrities of Kurdistan

Kurdistan is not just a geographical land in Iran. It is a shared soul and nationality amongst the people of the great Kurdistan. This part of Iran, this Kurdistan that speaks with the Kurdish language, has given the world and not just Iran, many famous and impressive characters known as the Celebrities of Kurdistan.

The Kurdish language is one of the ancient languages of the big family of the Persian language. It is like poetry and music is just born with Kurds.

Getting acquainted with the prominent personalities of the Kurd community is a valuable contribution to keep the people united. As much power lies within political decisions, art, and culture, the heritage of Celebrities of Kurdistan, is capable to undermine this fact and bring people of different tastes together.

Kurdistan has been a breeding ground for inspiring celebrities who have played central and efficient roles in many fields. This blog is dedicated to those who have brought beauty to the world.

Kayhan Kalhor

He came to this world in a music-loving family of Kermanshah. He started learning music freely at the age of five. Kalhor played music professionally when he was twelve, and at the age of thirteen, he started working with the Kermanshah Radio and Television Orchestra.

Kayhan Kalhor continued his studies at Carleton University in Ottawa. His collaboration with Indian artists like Hussein Khan’s Courage, Yoyoma, and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, has made him a world-renowned artist. This man among the Celebrities of Kurdistan is the only Iranian musician who has been nominated for an American Grammy Award four times.

Shahram Nazeri

Nazeri rises from Kermanshah, and he is a true Kurd. Nazeri is a singer, musician, and composer. In most of his works, he has used Rumi’s poems in his 30 years of artistic activity. He was able to create and continue a new style of music inspired by Iranian epic and mystical literature.

In addition to the poems of Rumi, Nazeri started to vocalize contemporary Persian poetry in the Iranian traditional music system. That made him a pioneer in this type of music. Before him, there were only Classic Persian poems. Shahram Nazeri has released more than 40 music albums so far.

When we talk about Shahram Nazeri, we must not forget the rise of another famous musician for Kurds and Iran, his son Hafez Nazeri, Celebrities of Kurdistan.

Master Barat Ali Nuraei

Master Barat Ali Nurani, known as Kabrat, the master musician of Dohl, was born in Sanandaj. He performed his music in countries such as France, Germany, Greece, Russia, and Iraq. Master Barat Ali Nuraei achieved top degrees and titles. He also introduced the original art, customs, and culture of Iranians, especially Kurds when he played in national festivals.

Latif Halmat

Latif Halmat is from Sulaymaniyah, Iraq. “Halmat” is the nickname this poet chose for himself. He has been composing poetry for children since 1979 at the age of 28. Halmat published his first poetic experience for children under the title The Most Beautiful Village in those early years. As one of the members of the Celebrities of Kurdistan, he has published seventeen books in the form of poetry for children. Helmet won the APIC International Prize for Children’s Literature.

Mahwi

Mamutsa Mahwi was a very meticulous, careful, and sensitive poet. Some say it took him a month or a year to write a poem.

The meaning and content of his poems are very deep and remarkable. He wrote them with deep thought and insight. In general, the poems of Mahwi have many topics like his concern for the Kurdish nation and its pride in the Kurdish language.

Mastoureh Ardalan

Mastoureh Ardalan was born in Sanandaj during the rule of Amanullah Khan. She is the first female historian in the world.

The death of her husband and the loss of her young brother brought her down with severe depression. Mastoureh Ardalan left Sanandaj in 1263 and went to Sulaymaniyah.

Among her works is a Poetry Divan with 2000 verses in the form of Masnavi and Ghazal. The history of Ardalans doubled her fame and gave her the title of the first female historian and one of the celebrities in Kurdistan.

Bakhtiar Ali

Bakhtiar Ali is an active contemporary Kurdish novelist, poet, and essayist. Bakhtiar Ali was born in Sulaymaniyah in 1960 and emigrated to Germany in 1996. His first novel, The Death of the Second Single Child (Death of the Twelfth Innocent), was published in 1997 in Sweden. His second novel, The Butterfly Sunset, was published in 1998.

Goran

Abdullah Beg, son of Suleiman Beg, son of Abdullah Beg, with the nicknamed Goran, was born in 1904 or 1905 in Halabja. A child whose father and grandfather were both poets and literary figures and Celebrities of Kurdistan.

Goran is mainly the architect and father of poetry of Kurdistan today. Although before Goran, Sheikh Nouri Sheikh Saleh laid the first foundations of this literary movement by composing several contemporary poems, it was only Goran who, by systematizing this movement, gave it a unique identity. With the works Goran created in his literary style, he gave the Kurdish language a new soul.

With such fantastic work, Goran revived Kurdish literature. It brought new horizons to the forefront, combined classical, and ancient literature with a more modern perspective that emerged from the literature that society was waiting for it.

Kamkarha

This band starter for the first time in Sanandaj as a family band. Their leader is Hassan Kamkar and Houshang; Accordionist, Bijan; Singer, Peshang; Santour player, Ghashang Kamkar; Singer and Violinist; Arjang Kamkar (Tombak), Arsalan (Oud), and Ardeshir (Kamancheh)

This Kurdish band has performed numerous concerts in Iran, Kurdistan, and abroad. They have regularly performed at some major music festivals and venues in Europe and the United States.

The Kamkars or Kamkarha have given concerts in most cities in Iraqi Kurdistan. For the first time in Turkish history, in 2001Kamkar band performed Kurdish music in the cities of Istanbul and Diyarbakir.

Serzad Hesen

Serzad Hesen is one of the contemporary Kurdish writers who entered the writing world from the beginning with a different style and procedure.

Serzad Hesen, the famous writer of the Celebrities of Kurdistan, was born in 1951 in Erbil (the capital of Kurdistan).

He is known for his stories and has impressive works in the fiction field and novels with a different perspective in Kurdish literature. His writings, all written in Kurdish and the Sorani dialect, have been translated into other languages ​​of the world.

By breaking the taboos and limitations of traditional society, he was able to reveal some of the causes of helplessness and backwardness of the people and the pains and hardships of the lower strata of his community.

The Celebrities of Kurdistan does not end here, there are many more people to write about. Being a Kurd comes with leverages such as talent in many fields of art.